So what are the challenges that women in politics face[30]? At the outset, the difference between de jure and de facto itself is a significant feature. In many, if not most, countries of the world, translating that which one is entitled to on paper (whether that is a Constitution, a law, or any legal document) to that which one can actually achieve is in itself a major challenge. However, it is important to highlight that this is not just a feature of women’s rights, but actually one of all human rights issues. The word of law therefore remains elusive, but it is nevertheless one of the most important empowering mechanisms for the achievement of rights.

Also worthy of note is the fact that few of the challenges to women’s de jure equality in the 21st century are really new. On the contrary, many of them have been passed down, so to speak, from previous generations. Nevertheless, some, such as access to technology, are a feature of scientific breakthroughs characteristic of the last 20 years only.

Challenges differ according to countries and regions, and even within one country they are not always of the same features. Recent events in Russia for instance, with the political murder of one of the country’s few liberal and outspoken promoters of democracy, indicate that the issue of political corruption and ensuing fear, will be major future challenges in this part of the world. Whereas the relative silence of certain female politicians in some Asian countries, in the face of political manipulation and intrigue, are indicators of other forms of constraints and consequent calculations. For the sake of simplifying what could be a long and interminable list therefore, the challenges are broken down into social/cultural, economic, and political spheres[31] .

Despite the fact that ‘culture’ and debates about it, have elicited an entire discipline within the social sciences, it still remains an elusive concept to define. However, for practical purposes, it can be assumed that culture encompasses particular lifestyles derived from history, perceived traditions, as well as both a product of and a motor for contemporary social and political dynamics. In short, therefore, culture is that which surrounds us and plays a certain role in determining the way we behave at any given moment in time. By no means a static concept, culture defines and is both defined by events that are taking place both locally as well as regionally and internationally, it is shaped by individual events as well as collective ones, and it is a feature of the time or epoch we live in. Because it is so vast, culture is also often used as a tool to validate all manners of actions - not, all of which may be acceptable to all concerned - and are often intimately, connected to issues of identity. Cultural frameworks are not always imposed, but are open to manipulation and interpretation from many angles and sources.

A significant social feature resides in the double - if not triple - responsibilities of women: In most countries, women are perceived to have ‘primary’ responsibilities as wives and mothers. But in many cases, either as a result of a preference for personal development, or out of sheer economic necessity, women also go out to work in the employment market. Hence, a political career may well come in these cases either as a second or third job[32] . Juggling these different occupations and their consequent responsibilities is no easy task for anyone - man or woman.

Societal perceptions regarding the traditional division of labour, where women are seen as bound to certain functions only, are also an important barrier that many women the world over face. This idea is closely connected with a definition and understanding of space as dichotomised between the public and the private spheres, where women are meant to belong to the latter. These notions are remarkably persistent, and are at the basis of much of the difficulties women face not only entering into the political sphere, but also gaining credibility and impacting from within it.

The stigma of politics as ‘dirty’ is somewhat connected to the previous notion, but is also more specific to certain countries where political scandal and intrigue dominate the headlines. Russia, with the latest events related to the murder of the woman Member of Parliament, in addition to rife rumours about Mafia involvement, is a good example.

Provision of social services and a support network based on family-friendly considerations are still lacking in many countries. There are many success stories of how women’s actual involvement in politics have impacted favourably on this area which will be elaborated in the following sections. But it remains an important requirement if women are to be able to overcome the difficulties of the double/triple responsibilities and stereotyped roles.

Illiteracy is another problem. According to the UNDP 1995 Human Development Report, out of the developing world’s 900 million illiterate people, women outnumber men two to one, and girls constitute the majority of the 130 million children without access to primary school. Further, because population growth has superseded the expansion of women’s education in some developing regions, the number of women who are illiterate has actually increased[33] .

In many countries of the South, the greatest challenges for human development in general, and women’s participation in public life in particular, are the changes in a global economic market, poverty and illiteracy. Although it is a commonly held refrain that economic and political development go hand in hand, the situation of women’s empowerment in some countries with a high per capita income, such as some of the oil producing states, disproves this commonly held belief.

Hence, there is no one country, which claims to be satisfied with the situation of women’s political participation. Even in Sweden, with a high per capita income and standard of living, and hailed as a model for other nations of the world with its gender equality policies and its over 40% female parliamentary representation, there are still many complaints of certain entrenched (and often subtle) macho attitudes towards women gaining influence.

Poverty is seen as a major impediment largely because it means that women are, or become, more concerned with earning their daily living than following any specific political development. Moreover, the process referred to as the feminisation of poverty means that most of those affected tend to be women, so how can they be expected to find the time to actively participate in a political process? Worse still, the question needs to be asked whether there is any direct advantage accruing to these women from having women politicians as yet?

Another factor is the lack of adequate financial resources that women tend to have access to. The impact of this can be felt primarily when financing electoral campaigns, as well as the ability of women politicians to undertake certain initiatives. Although a major recommendation of many international gatherings is that both political parties as well as governments attempt to provide and set up various funds especially destined for women, women in many parts of the world still end up with less - if any - access to resources.

Research indicates that the type of electoral system plays an important role in determining whether or not women get properly involved on party lists or get elected[34] . Several research results indicate that Proportional Representation systems are most conducive to women’s legislative presence. As indicated earlier, however, most of the information available on this issue is specific to the Western world. Moreover, it is also a case that each electoral system does not operate in a void but is affected by other cultural and economic considerations. Hence, no one particular system can be universally advocated.

The structures and agendas of political parties are another factor in considerations of women’s political participation. Many political parties, reflecting the more general conditions in the rest of society, do not easily accept or promote many women into their echelons, let alone women’s occupation of important positions within these parties. This issue is particularly important in view of current discussions about the overall role and functioning of political parties, and the concerns being raised about the political viability and popularity of such vehicles in the face of emerging alternative political entities, such as NGOs.

The lack of sufficient training and communication skills, or media know-how, is also extremely problematic for women in developed and developing countries alike. In the age of the media, women politicians need to use the media and be constructively used by it for purposes of positive image building, constituency creation and consolidation, as well as the dissemination of their agendas. This issue is compounded by a corresponding lack of interest on the part of the media about women politicians. “Just being a woman politician is not enough to raise interest…we need a story that is interesting and would attract attention”[35] is not an uncommon view from media personnel.

One of the defining features of global culture today and in the 21st century, is media and its sister development - information technology. The latter will emerge as perhaps the most determining variables in events in the years to come, and the capacity to own, influence and manipulate these structures will determine where and with whom power lies. Hence the importance of situating - not only women per se - but those with strong women-friendly commitment, belief, and influence within all media institutions.

Access to technology remains an imperative that only the privileged enjoy. Previously, the statement - that was almost a cliché - was that knowledge is power. Today and in the coming century, access to technology is at the basis of global power relations, and hence also a determinant feature of gender relations and women’s empowerment. Today’s technology determines a great deal of the availability of information, and hence, knowledge. Women who have limited access to such things as office facilities, computers (i.e. the software and the hardware), and Internet - which have become almost basic features of any office and individual in the developed world - are at a distinct disadvantage in terms of their capacity, efficiency and potential locally as well as internationally.

In sum, few of the challenges are new, but most fall into broader frameworks of culture, economics and politics. These frameworks are not rigid however, since many of the challenges overlap, e.g. culturally-determined gendered role-allocations also play a role in media reluctance to take an interest, which in turn, reflects on how popular and/or understood women’s political platforms and achievements can be, and how far their impact thus is. Also, questions around the choice of any particular electoral system are affected by the cultural and economic features of any country, as are aspects of access to technology, which are closely connected to the economic capabilities of countries. Having said that however, it remains important to note that these obstacles are not insurmountable by any means. In fact, a great deal has already been achieved as earlier sections have also indicated. The provision of international norms and the strengthening of global networking provide important tools for moving in the direction of enhancing women’s political participation. The following section in particular will look at this dimension in more detail.